The Articles of Confederation explained; What are they?

On July 2, 1776 the Second Continental Congress first voted to declare independence from the United Kingdom¹. Two days later, the final draft of the Declaration of Independence was accepted², and the United States of America was born. It was not until March 4, 1789³ that the current Constitution of the United States took effect, so what governed the United States from 1776-1789? For the most part, but for a very short time in 1776-1777⁴, it was the first Constitution of the United States, the Articles of Confederation Though shorter than the present Constitution (~3,400 words to ~4,500 words), the Articles of Confederation bridged the time from Independence and War to our current Federal Republic.

Even before the Congress voted to declare Independence from Great Britain in 1776, the fact it would happen was not much in doubt, it was only a matter of when. With a committee having been formed to draft up a Declaration of Independence on June 11, 1776⁵, the inevitability of self-government required action. The following day on June 12 a committee was also formed to, "prepare and digest the form of a confederation to be entered into between these colonies"⁶. This Committee consisted of (sic)

New Hampshire ... Mr. [Josiah] Bartlett
Massachusetts ... Mr. S[amuel] Adams
Rhode Island ... Mr. [Stephen] Hopkins
Connecticut ... Mr. [Roger] Sherman
New York ... Mr. R[obert R.] Livingston
New Jersey
Pensylvania ... Mr. [John] Dickinson
Delaware ... Mr. [Thomas] McKean
Maryland ... Mr. [Thomas] Stone
Virginia ... Mr. [Thomas] Nelson
North Carolina ... Mr. [Joseph] Hewes
S. Carolina ... Mr. [Edward] Rutledge
Georgia ... Mr. [Button] Gwinnett

[Note: New Jersey is not listed in the Congressional records]

After over a year of drafting and deliberation, the Congress finally agreed to the Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777 to be ratified by all the States. It would take all 13 States to ratify the Articles before they could go into effect on March 1, 1781, though the Congress operated under their rules until then (since no other binding provision had been made since Independence).

The Articles of Confederation establish just that, a confederation of Independent and sovereign States. Each State in the Confederation was considered a fully separate and sovereign entity, free to make its own laws independent of the Congress and other States. The Confederation of the States was a very loose association through a single body, the Congress of the United States. The States gave up very few powers, and the Congress possessed few of its own. This loose association and few vested powers in general for all, was what eventually led to its failure in the 1780's.

Just like the Constitution, the Articles of Confederation are structured into sections or Articles with a preamble, the Articles of Confederation having XIII, while the Constitution VII. This is a summary of each Article of the Confederation.

Preamble

Style;(name) for the Confederation is the United States of America
State Sovereignty and Power retained
Purpose
Privileges and Immunities of Free Inhabitants; Free passage of persons and goods; Extradition; Faith in records and proceedings among the States.
Appointment of Delegates; State Representation; Voting Power of Delegations; immunity of Delegates
Prohibitions of the States
Armies of the States
Paying of War debts
Powers of Congress; Passing acts in the Congress; Adjournment and records of proceedings
Power of Committee of the States
Provision for Canada; additional addmissions
Prior Bills of Credit and Debt assumed
State shall by abide to Congress; Altering the Articles

The Preamble states that all of the States (All 13 listed) agree to this Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the States.

Article I (Style, the name of the Confederation)

This Article simply describes what the Confederation of States will be called the "The United States of America".

Article II (State Sovereignty and Power retained)

Article II in its entirety states;

Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled.

As it says, whatever powers are not expressively delegated to the Congress Assembled, and all sovereignty, freedom and independence are retained by the States. Of interest here is the separation between "sovereignty, freedom, and independence," from that of, "every power, jurisdiction, and right", prior to addressing the Confederation. This separation is intentional to clearly delineate that each State holds ALL of its Sovereignty, Freedom and Independence and has NOT given any to the Congress. But it does give up power, jurisdiction and rights that will be later described in the Articles. This reflects the importance that the delegates (in the interest of their constituents) placed on States Rights and Power, and their intention to ensure as much power remained with the States as possible, while surrendering as little as needed to a common government body. The purpose was to ensure the States controlled as much of their own affairs as possible without the common government, and which did not affect the other States.

Article III (Purpose)

Article III Affirms that all of the states are entering into a;

firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever.

This Article is stating the whole purpose of the Articles of Confederation, it is a "league of friendship" between the States. The purpose of the confederation is for their, "common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare". This is to mean their common interests among them, with the Article continuing to state specific examples, "assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever". These as examples of what is in the common interest of all 13 States, attacks made upon them due to religion, sovereignty reasons, trade or other reasons.

Noteworthy with this article is the use of "common defense" and "general welfare" in the same clause. This will be seen again in Article I Section 8 Clause 1 of the Constitution. Here in their use, it is followed by a descriptive portion in the clause, which only addresses defense of attack, and makes no other distinctions to any other purpose.

Article IV (Privileges and Immunities of Free Inhabitants; Free passage of persons and goods; Extradition; Faith in records and proceedings among the States.)

This Article covers several items briefly. The first thing addressed is the, "mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this Union". Each free inhabitant of the Union is entitled to all the privileges and immunities in all of the States. In addition the people are free to go to from one state to the next without issue. The people are free to conduct trade among the States, but may be subject to duties, impositions and restrictions, "provided that such restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any State, to any other State". This is to say trade and goods may be restricted, but not the personal property of an individual who is going from one State to any other State that the owner of the property is an inhabitant of. An example of this may be, a person buys something in Connecticut, but that item is restricted or a duty must be paid on it in New York and the person who bought the item lives in New Jersey. That person is free to take that item through New York without restriction or duty to New Jersey. Also the States may not place duty, imposts or restrictions on property of the United States or any of the States.

Also in Article IV is the ability to extradite, "any person guilty of, or charged with, treason, felony, or other high misdemeanor in any State". The State of the crime can demand the State the fugitive fled to return the fugitive to the State having jurisdiction over the offense.

Finally Article IV also gives full faith and credit to each States, "records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State". This means the legal records, acts and Judgments of one State must be honored in all other States.

Article V (Appointment of Delegates; State Representation; Voting Power of Delegations; immunity of Delegates)

This concerns the Delegates of the Congress Assembled. Delegates would be appointed how the Legislature of the State chooses. The Delegates would meet in session the first Monday in November every year. The States reserved the right to recall one or more or all of its delegates at any time and replace them with others for the remainder of the year.

Each State must have between two and seven delegates, and no person may be a delegate for more than three out of six years. This is placing essentially term limits on the Delegates, and the reason was to ensure new thoughts and ideas were regularly introduced into the Congress, and no delegate became institutionalized. In addition, no delegate was "capable of holding any office under the United States, for which he, or another for his benefit, receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind". This is limiting the Delegates to one position, that of a Delegate, in which he may profit, to prevent a conflict of interest or financial motivation for corruption. If a member cannot be paid in any matter, or someone that may benefit him, for another position he holds in the US Government either by public or private monies, this prevents the delegate from making decisions that are not in the common interest of the Nation, and that of their own interest.

Next in the article pay for delegates is discussed, "Each State shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the States, and while they act as members of the committee of the States". The distinction here is "meeting of the States" and "members of the committee of the States". This distinction allows for the treasury of the United States to be allowed to pay for the delegates as they operate in a position of the United States, such a President of Congress, or as a Minister or some other role in an official capacity not of the State, but of the United States. This specific wording of pay, with the prior condition of holding no other office of profit in the United States, allows a member to be both a delegate paid by the State, and an Official of the United States paid by the United States.

Each State will have one vote in the Congress Assembled. No provision is made in the manner of how the States will come to its vote however, though a vote among each State delegation was normally the manner used. Each delegate was guaranteed the full Freedom of Speech in debate, and shall not be questioned in any court for their words, nor be impeached from them. In addition, "members of Congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests or imprisonments, during the time of their going to and from, and attendance on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace". This is to prevent a member or even a State or States delegations from being impeded or prevented from acting in the Congress, with few exceptions. In the event of contentious or unpopular impending votes, members were assured the ability to be able to cast their vote, and not be held for administrative or minor reason by any state or other government or civil activity that may desire to prevent a vote or member or members from voting.

Article VI (Prohibitions of the States)

This article lists actions that the States are prohibited doing. Many of these are actions that would prevent to Congress or other States from being able to ensure the general good or the Confederation or may prevent another State from doing the Same.

No State may send or receive an ambassador,
No State may enter into any conference, agreement, alliance or treaty with another foreign State.
No person holding an office of profit or trust under the United States shall accept any gift, emolument, office or title from a foreign state
The Congress Assembled or any member of it shall not grant any title of nobility.
No Two or more States may enter into a treaty, confederation or alliance without the consent of the Congress Assembled.
No State shall lay imposts or duties, which may interfere with treaties entered into by the Congress of the United States.
No vessel of war shall be kept in time of peace by any State, except as deemed necessary by the Congress Assembled for the defense of that State of its trade.
No body of force may be kept by any State in the time of Peace, except for a number in the judgment of the Congress Assembled deems required to garrison of forts needed for the State’s defense.
Every State shall keep a well-regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutered [To outfit and equip, as for military duty⁷; to provide with equipment or furnishings⁸] and shall provide and constantly have ready for use in stores, a due number of pieces and tents, proper quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipment.
No State shall engage in any war without the consent of Congress, unless invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade such State, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay till the United States in Congress assembled can be consulted
No State shall grant commission to any ships or vessels of war, letters of marque [privateers] until after a declaration of war by Congress, and only against the Nation war has been declared upon, and under regulations of Congress, except upon invasion of pirates and kept only as long as the danger continues or the Congress determines otherwise.

These prohibition prevented the State from many relations with foreign states, since they may have been against the good of the whole. They prevented States from engaging in war, unless actually attacked or attack is imminent, and also prohibits the States from possessing standing armies or navies, since these were seen by many as a threat to freedom and liberty [Virginia Constitution, North Carolina Constitution, New York Constitution, Maryland Constitution, Pennsylvania Constitution (1776), Vermont Constitution (1777)⁹]. It also required the State to maintain, train and equip Militias.

These prohibitions to the States ensured the the Congress could act as the primary agent and sole agent in foreign relations for the whole United States without another State interfering or agreeing to contrary agreements. It also ensured that the liberty and freedom of the people were maintained from the State governments, while providing for a force to be able to respond for the defense of the State or the Confederation.

Article VII (Armies of the States)

Article VII Concerning the appointment of Officers for land forces raised for the common defense. All officers under the rank of Colonel, and vacancies shall be appointed as directed by the legislature of the respective State raising the forces. This leaves the appointment of General Officers under the authority of the Congress Assembled. Since state armies and militias may be combined from more than one State to form larger units. This enables Congress to appoint General Officers from different States to command these larger units, while the individual State Units may choose the Commander for the smaller State units.

Article VIII (Paying of War debts)

This dictates the costs of war and all its expenses for the common defense and general welfare will be paid by the treasury of the United States. The States shall supply funds in proportion to the value of all the land within their State granted or surveyed for any person, and the mode of survey will be as the Congress directs and appoints. The authority to lay and collect taxes to raise these revenues is by the direction of the State legislatures as agreed upon by the Congress.

This is to ensure war debts are paid, that each State contributes based upon its inhabited value, but leaves the method and means of collection to the States.

Article IX (Powers of Congress; Passing acts in the Congress; Adjournment and records of proceedings)

Here lies the powers of the Congress Assembled, what it may do, resolving disputes between the States, what Congress it is forbidden from doing and adjournments.

Powers granted to the Congress Assembled

Congress shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned in the sixth article (Actual or imminent invasion)
Sending and receiving ambassadors
Entering into treaties and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby the legislative power of the respective States shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever
Of establishing rules for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the United States shall be divided or appropriated
Of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times of peace
Appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas and establishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no member of Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said courts.

These powers granted are about foreign relations and agreements, and regarding war. Congress is given the sole authority to make war, and establish rules of capture. It also has the power to appoint trials for crimes on the high seas, while forbidding a member of Congress from part of the trial. Congress also has the power to make treaties, but no treaty in Trade or Commerce may be made which would run contrary to existing state laws on trade and commerce (States are forbidden from passing laws which interfere with treaties in Article VI).

After the Articles of Confederation address disputes between the States, the Articles continue on in laying out powers granted to the Congress Assembled.

Congress shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective States.
Fixing the standards of weights and measures throughout the United States.
Regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the States, provided that the legislative right of any State within its own limits be not infringed or violated.
Establishing or regulating post offices from one State to another, throughout all the United States, and exacting such postage on the papers passing through the same as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office.
Appointing all officers of the land forces, in the service of the United States, excepting regimental officers.
Appointing all the officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the United States.
Making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their operations.
When the Congress is in recess, a body may be organized to act for the United States, “A Committee of the States”. The Congress shall designate a Committee of the States to consist of one delegate from each State.
Appoint other committees and civil officers as necessary, for managing the general affairs of the United States under Congress’ direction.
To appoint one of their members to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years.
To ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses.
To borrow money, or emit bills on the credit of the United States, transmitting every half-year to the respective States an account of the sums of money so borrowed or emitted.
To build and equip a navy.
To agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such State; which requisition shall be binding, and thereupon the legislature of each State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in a solid- like manner, at the expense of the United States; and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled. But if the United States in Congress assembled shall, on consideration of circumstances judge proper that any State should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed and equipped in the same manner as the quota of each State, unless the legislature of such State shall judge that such extra number cannot be safely spread out in the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm and equip as many of such extra number as they judge can be safely spared. And the officers and men so cloathed, armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled.

These provisions concern the domestic powers of the Congress Assembled. It shall appoint a President of the Congress with a term limit. The Congress shall have be the sole authority on the striking of coined, will fix the weights and standards. To regulate the trade between and managing the affairs with the Indians, provided they do not conflict with a State rights. The will establish post offices among the states, and determine postage required. To borrow money or emit Bills of credit, and request funds from the States. The appointing of Officers of the Armed Forces of the United States except regimental officers, as well as establishing and regulating the same forces, and request from the States a quota in proportion to the white inhabitants of the state for the Armed Forces. The number requested by quota can be reduced if Congress deems appropriate, or the legislature of the State in concern deems it cannot safely afford that many men. These are done to ensure the regular trade and among the states with Indians, ensure a postal service is operable and regulate the Armed Forces of the United States.

Disputes between States.

Since no Judiciary Branch existed covering the entire Confederation, the Congress is also given a means to resolve disputes between States.

Congress shall be the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two or more States concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any other causes whatever.

A detailed process on how this is done is included.

A Legislative or Executive Authority may petition congress on the matter, and request a hearing.
Congress will notify the State of the day assigned for the hearing.
Congress will direct the appointment by joint consent (State or States and Congress), commissioner or judges to be the court. If an agreement can not be met, Congress shall name three persons from each state, and from this list each party shall alternate striking names until 13 are left. From those 13, seven to nine will be drawn by lot in Congress, and those persons or any five shall be the commissioners or judges.
A majority of the judges is required to render a decision.
If either party neglects to attend on the day appointed, without showing reasons which Congress judges sufficient, or is present and refuse to strike out names, the Congress will nominate three persons out of each state, and the Secretary will strike on behalf of the party absent or refusing.
Judgments or sentence of the court or commission shall be final
If any party refuses to submit to the authority of the court, or fails to appear to defend their claim, the court will proceed to pronounce judgment.
The judgment and proceedings will be forwarded to Congress, and archived for the security of both parties.
Each commissioner, before sitting in judgment, shall take an oath (“well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, according to the best of his judgement, without favor, affection or hope of reward”), administered by one of the Supreme or Superior Court Judges in the State the case is tried.
No State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States.

This process is meant to be able to resolve any disputes between the States. Anything among two States in dispute may be resolved using this process, and that no territory shall be deprived which may benefit the United States. This is a thorough, but cumbersome process, to ensure a neutral or as neutral of a court as possible, consisting of members that neither side vehemently objects too. It decisions are final, and Congress has no direct role or part of the trial or commission itself, nor has the ability to affect its judgment in any way after it is made.

In addition to this, controversies between private citizens regarding land claims under grants of two different states, either party may petition Congress to be determined in the same manner as a dispute between the States.

Passing acts in the congress Assembled

In order for Congress to pass it resolutions, two different rules applied. One required the ascent of Nine of the Thirteen States in order to pass a resolution or bill. The other rule, cover the remainder of the Business of Congress, this requires only a simple majority of those delegations present to vote in favor for the motion to carry. These rules intentionally made it very difficult, but not impossible for most of the business of the Congress to pass, since nearly all of the significant portions of the powers granted to the congress would require Nine States to vote in favor.

The Following actions require Nine States to vote yea.

Congress shall never engage in a war,
Grant letters of marque or reprisal in time of peace,
Enter into any treaties or alliances,
Coin money,
Regulate the value thereof,
Ascertain the sums and expenses necessary for the defense and welfare of the United States, or any of them,
Emit bills,
Borrow money on the credit of the United States,
Appropriate money,
Agree upon the number of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised,
Appoint a commander in chief of the army or navy:

These provision required Nine States to vote yea of the 13 for the bill to carry. It was not a 9 of 13 ratio, but it must be nine States. If Nine states were not present at the Congress with their minimum delegation of two delegates (Article V), these items could not be enacted, and debate may not even begin.

The other rule requires only s simple majority for passage.

nor shall a question on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day be determined, unless by the votes of the majority of the United States in Congress assembled.

This provision requires only a simple majority of those delegations present in order to pass the other business of the Congress not listed above. Most items of this description would be insignificant to the United States, and many may have been simple motions on making changes to a bill, before its final vote which would require the Nine States to enact.

Adjournment and Records of proceedings

Congress was able to chose when they adjourned, and where they may call Congress back in session, with only one stipulation, “no period of adjournment be for a longer duration than the space of six months”. Congress shall also publish its proceedings monthly, except the parts regarding treaties, alliances or military operations and they judge their secrecy is required. These proceedings shall include, “the yeas and nays of the delegates of each State on any question shall be entered on the journal, when it is desired by any delegates of a State, or any of them, at his or their request shall be furnished with a transcript of the said journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several States.”

This is a means to ensure the regular session of Congress, that it is not in recess for an excessive time between its required First Monday of November session opening. It is also to make sure the record goes to legislatures of each states to see and/or verify how their appointed delegate voted in Congress. This will also ensure it may serve as the public record, that cannot be refuted, since all states are provided with the same record.

Article X (Power of Committee of the States)
Article X concerns the powers of the Committee of the States stated in Article IX. The Committee of the States acts as the governing power of the United States while Congress is in recess, and is appointed by the Congress, with one representative from each State. The Committee of the States Shall;

be authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United States in Congress assembled, by the consent of the nine States, shall from time to time think expedient to vest them with

The Committee of the State was however prohibited in conducting any business which would require the vote of Nine States in the Congress Assembled as described in Article IX. The Committee of the States basically consisted of administrative duties of the government, since most of the power of government required Nine Votes to conduct. But the Committee would be able to take care of the day to day business as it was required, and represent the United States.

Article XI (Provision for Canada; additional admissions)

This Article makes a provision for Canada to join the Confederation upon its ratification of the Articles of Confederation, and will be entitled to all rights as the rest of the States.

All other “colonies” may only be admitted upon the ascent of Nine States.

This provision allows for the expansion of the Confederation, with an open invitation to Canada requiring only their ratification of the Articles of Confederation. This provision would never be used. Canada never expressed interest in joining Confederation remaining loyal to the British crown, and the only expansion that occurred during the Articles of Confederation occurred on the acquiring of the North West Territories, which happened while the Convention in Philadelphia was drafting a new Constitution.

Article XII (Prior Bills of Credit and Debt assumed)

This states all debts, bills of credit, and monies borrowed of the United States, that occurred prior to the ratification of the Articles of Confederation, will be honored.

Article XIII State shall by abide to Congress; Altering the Articles

The Final Articles does not outright make the Articles of Confederation the Supreme Law only that they must be observed, and that Acts of Congress shall be abided by all the States in concern.

Every State shall abide by the determination of the United States in Congress assembled, on all questions which by this confederation are submitted to them. And the Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual

This clause also states the Union is perpetual [continuing forever¹⁰] implying that once a State enters the Union, it is forever in the Union.

Also included in the last Article is the means to amend the Articles of Confederation. In order for the Articles to be altered, the alteration must be agreed to by the Congress, and ratified by each legislature in the Union. No changes to the structure or power of the Articles of Confederation could occur with any dissent from any one House in any of the State Legislatures. This process made it nearly impossible to make any needed changes to the Articles of Confederation, since only one House in the Union would have to oppose it. A State Legislature could not be counted as ratifying the amendment unless both chambers[if the State has two chambers which many did¹¹] approved of the ratification.

Signed Portion

The last part attest to their signatures, and their represented states commitment to abide by the Articles of Confederation, and be in perpetual Union. Even though it does not expressively say so, the Articles of Confederation did not take full effect until all states agreed to them, just as they must do to alter them.

The Order in which State signed the Articles of Confederation.

July 9, 1778

New Hampshire

July 21, 1778

North Carolina
South Carolina

July 24, 1778

Georgia

August 8, 1778

Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York

November 26, 1778

New Jersey
Pennsylvania

February 12, 1779 & May 5, 1779

Delaware

March 1, 1781

Maryland
Virginia

The Articles of Confederation Operated as the first Constitution of the United States from March 1781 until the new Constitution took effect on March 4, 1789. It took Six years from assignment in Committee, even before the Declaration of Independence was approved, to it finally being ratified as the American Revolution was drawing near to a close. It did operate as the frame work for the Congress before it was ratified, to provide an organized structure to the governments. After ratification was final, it only lasted eight years, before being replaced with a more robust Constitution, in order to make a more perfect Union.

1: http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?hlaw:3:./temp/~ammem_208j::

2: http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(jc00527))

3: http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(hj0011))

4: The Articles of Confederation were not fully ratified until 1781, though the Congress operated under the final draft of 1777 as a means of structure.

5:http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(jc0057)):

6: http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(jc0058))

7: The Free dictionary, http://www.thefreedictionary.com/accoutered

8: Merriam-Webster, http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/accoutered

9: These were State Constitutions in effect when the Articles of Confederation were presented to the States on November 15, 1777 which contain a clause addressing this. Vermont was not a State at the time and was still considered part of New York but still drafted and ratified its own Constitution.

10: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/perpetual